George Puttenham’s Rhetorical Devices for the Hip-Hop Generation: A 16th Century Fusion Manuscript

“Now if our presupposall be true that the Poet is of all other the most auncient Orator, as he that by good & pleasant perswasions first reduced the wilde and beastly people into publicke societies and civilitie of life, insinuating vnto them, vnder fictions with sweete and coloured speeches, many wholesome lessons and doctrines, then no doubt there is nothing so fitte for him, as to be furnished with all the figures that be Rhetoricall, and such as do most beautifie language with eloquence & sententiousness.”

Chap. XIX – Of Figures sententious, otherwise called Rhetorical. ‘The Arte Of English Poesie’  (1589). George Puttenham.[1]

 “You gonna curate your art, n***a

  You better tell these n****s why you do what you do
 ‘Cause, they ain’t nobody gonna be there that
  Explain that s**t
  You need rhetoric
  Who told you rhetoric was a bad word?...”

  Outro – ‘Flygod’ (2016). Westside Gunn.[2]

 “You need rhetoric”, so says Westside Gunn on the Outro to his 2016 debut album Flygod. But what exactly is rhetoric, and why might a rapper need it?

Simply put, “rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially the exploitation of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.” From alliteration to repetition to metaphors, creative writing in any form is made up of rhetorical devices. These rhetorical devices, from the minutely subtle to the glaringly obvious, help to define and structure a piece of writing, and layer it with intent, meaning and purpose. Persuasive writing is not solely useful for argumentative language and debating, where the direct aim is to convince someone to your line of thinking, but also serves a wider creative purpose. The ability to manifest and subvert rhetorical devices are skills necessary for any great writer, from Homer to Andre 3000. This is a manuscript to highlight the rhetorical devices in use throughout history, as defined by George Puttenham in his influential 1589 work The Arte of English Poesie, but in the context of the most popular form of contemporary poetry: hip-hop.

Now, that is a deliberately controversial statement. Classical poetry scholars have historically denied hip-hop and the wider canon of black art as being deemed literary (see Alex Mason for Media Diversified[3]), or as worthy of study, but their racist, colonialist prejudices are no longer concrete, their word is no longer bond. By the same token, however, this cross cultural-historical comparison is not an attempt to suddenly validate hip-hop as an art form by offering it a token place in the white canon. Hip-hop and poetry do not exist in a binary, though they are two art forms that share a wealth of DNA, they are ultimately their own unique specimens. If I have spent this second paragraph contradicting the statement made at the end of the first paragraph, then you may be questioning why even undertake this task?

Well, it’s quite simple. For education purposes. Through his work with The Hip-Hop Shakespeare Company, UK rapper, activist and writer Akala has already begun to explore the connections between the traditional standard bearers of English Literature and contemporary hip-hop. As a company they teach young people about theatre, hip hop, poetry, creative writing, history, music and more, and help them to develop “new skills in performing arts by creating excitement around words and rhyming”. In my own small way I hope this fusion manuscript can offer another resource to this exciting venture. In studying and learning about different rhetorical devices we can rediscover the brilliance of works past, and discover new ways to play with and utilise linguistic techniques in our own creative writing. The aim of this piece is, fundamentally, quite simple: it is to continue to encourage young people all over to engage with language and the performing arts, to continue to push against the barriers of what is considered ‘worthy’ by academia, and, ultimately, to continue to celebrate writing and it’s infinite beauty in all forms.

George Puttenham’s Rhetorical Devices for the Hip-Hop Generation

Anaphora, or the figure of Report:

Repetition in the first degree we call the figure of Report according to the Greek original, and is when we make one word begin, and as they are want to say, lead the dance to many verses in suit, as thus:

“Tired of running,

  Tired of hunting…”

“How many sins? I’m running out,

  How many sins? I lost count…”

  Kendrick Lamar – Sing About Me, I’m Dying of Thirst

Antistrophe, or the Counter-Turn:

You have another sort of repetition quite contrary to the former when you make one word finish many verse in suit, and that which is harder, to finish many clauses in the middle of your verses or rhymes.

“Man f*ck them n*ggas I come home and I don’t tell nobody
  They gettin’ temporary dough and I don’t tell nobody
  Lord will you tell me if I changed, I won’t tell nobody
  I wanna go back to Jermaine, and I won’t tell nobody”

  J.Cole – G.O.M.D.

Symploche, or the figure of Reply:

Take the two former figure and out them into one, and it is that which the Greeks called symploche, the Latins complexio, or conduplicato, and is a manner of repetition, when one and the same word begin and end many verses in suit and So wrap up both the former figures in one.

“Ya mom is so fat (How fat is she?)

  Ya mama is so big and fat that she can get busy

  With twenty two burritos…”

“Ya mom is so fat (How fat is she?)

  We rode up on her back to get some burgers from Wendy’s…”

  The Pharcyde – Ya Mama

[Not quite a perfect example, but the figure of Report and then reply is clear in the question-answer joke format repeated throughout the song.]

Anadiplosis, or the Redouble:

You have another sort of repetition when with the word by which you finish a line, you begin the next line with the same, as thus:

“Writing rhymes, tryna find our spot off in that light,

  Light off in that spot, knowing that we could rock”

  Outkast (Andre 3k) – Elevators (Me and You)

Epanalepsis, or the Echo sound, otherwise, the slow return:

You have another sort repetition, when you make one word both begin and end your line.

“Picture perfect, I paint a perfect picture”

  2Pac – 2 of Amerikaz Most Wanted

Or,

“Everything is everything”

  Lauryn Hill – Everything is Everything

Epizeuxis, or the Underlay, or Coockoo-spell:

You have another sort of repetition when in one line or clause of a line, you iterate one word without any intermission, as thus:

“Keep your glory, gold and glitter,

  For half, half his n*ggas’ll take him out the picture”

  Madvillain – Accordion

Ploche, or the Doubler:

Yet have you one sort of repetition, which we call the doubler, and is as the next before, a speedy iteration of one word, but with some little intermission by inserting one or two words between.

“No question; Jay-Z got too many answers,

  I been around this block too many times,

  Rocked too many rhymes, cocked too many nines”

  Jay-Z – 22 Two’s

Or,

“If Faye have twins she’d probably have two Pacs

  Get it?... Tu-Pac’s”

  Jay-Z ft The Notorious B.I.G. – Brooklyn’s Finest

Prosnomasia, or the Nicknamer

You have a figure by which you play with a couple of words or names much resembling, and because the one seems to answer the other by manner of illusion, and does, as it were, ‘nick’ him, I call it the Nicknamer.

“I destroy average rappers, it’s just practice”

  Joey Badass – Five Fingers of Death (Freestyle)

Traductio, or the Translator:

Then you have a figure which the Latin’s called Traductio, and I the translator, which is when you turn and translate a word into many sundry shapes like the tailor does to their garment, and after that do play with in your verse, as such:

“Harlem Shake? Nah, I’m in Harlem shaking awake,

  Shaking to bake, shaking the jakes,

  Kill you, shoot up your funeral and Harlem Shake at your wake”

  Cam’Ron – Down and Out

Antipophora, or the Figure of Response:

You have a figurative speech which the Greeks call Antipophora, I name it the Response, and it is when we will seem to ask a question to the intent that we will answer it ourselves, and is a figure of argument and also of amplification. Of argument, because proposing such matter as our adversary might object and then to answer it ourselves, we do unfurnish and prevent our adversary of such help as they would otherwise have formed for themselves. Then because such objection and answer spend much language it serves as well to amplify and enlarge our tale.

“Have you ever been hated or discriminated against?

  I have, I’ve been protested and demonstrated against,

  Picket signs for my wicked rhymes, look at the times,

  Sick as the mind of the motherfuckin’ kid that’s behind

  All this commotion…”

  Eminem – Cleanin’ Out My Closet

Synteiosis, or the Cross-Coupling:

You have another figure called the Cross-couple, because it takes two contrasting words, and ties them together as it were in a pair of couples, and so makes them agree like good fellows.

“Bought a nightmare, sold a dream”

  Danny Brown – Rolling Stone

Or,

“Imagine life at its full peak,

  Then imagine lying dead in the arms of your enemy”

  Scarface – I Seen A Man Die

Atanaclasis, or the Rebound:

You have another figure which by its nature we may call the rebound, alluding to the tennis ball which being hit with the racket rebounds back again, and where the last figure before played with two words somewhat alike, this plays with one word written all alike but carrying different senses.

“Got more sole than a sock with a hole”

  Madvillain – Rhinestone Cowboy

Or,

“Mad h*es, ask Beavis, I get nothing but head!’”

  Big L – ’98 Freestyle

Clymax, or the Marching Figure:

You have the marching figure for after the first step all the rest proceeds by double the space, and so in our speech one word proceeds double to the first that was spoken, and goes as it were by strides or paces.

“Cause if you told Ms. Mattie, she went and told Gladys

  And once ya Mama got it it was all on the wire,

  And when the word got back they set yo ass on fire”

  Scarface – On My Block

This is not quite the right example, but the sense of a marching/climbing progression in the storytelling is clear in the movement of the message through Face’s neighbourhood. If we were to follow Puttenham’s directions exactly, it would read something like this:

“Cause if you told Ms. Mattie, she went and told Gladys,

  And once Gladys told ya Mama it was all on the wire,

  And when the word got back ya Mama set yo ass on fire”

Antimetauole, or the Counterchange:

You have a figure which takes a couple of words to play with in a verse, and by making them change and shift one into other places they very prettily exchange and shift the meaning.

“We used to fight for building blocks,

  Now we fight for blocks with buildings that make a killing”

  Jay-Z – D’evils

Insultatio, or the Disdainful:

You have another figure when, with proud and insolent words, we do upbraid a man, or ride him as we term it.

“That’s why I f*cked your b*tch you fat motherf*cker”

  2Pac – Hit ‘Em Up

Or,

“Yella boy’s on your team so you’re losing

  Ay yo Dre, stick to producing”

  Ice Cube – No Vaseline

Antitheton, or the Encounter:

You have another figure very pleasant and fit for amplification, which to answer the Greek term, we may call the encounter, but following the Latin name by reason of a contentious nature, we may call it the quarreller, for so be all such persons as delight in taking the contrary party of whatsoever shall be spoken.

“B*tch I wanna party like Chris Farley

  Shot of Hennessy spike that with some molly

  Tell mommy I’m sorry, God bless my soul

  But life is so sublime going out like Brad Nowell

  I got that Kurt Cobain type of mind frame”

  Danny Brown – Die Like A Rockstar

Erotema, or the Questioner:

There is a kind of figurative speech when we ask many questions and look for no answers, speaking indeed by interrogation, which we might as well say by affirmation.

“First of all who’s you’re A & R? A mountain climber who plays an electric guitar?

  GZA – Protect Ya Neck

Or,

“If I wasn’t, then why would I say I am?

  Rakim – As The Rhyme Goes On

Ecphonisis, or the Outcry:

The figure of exclamation, I call it the outcry because it utters our mind by all such words as do show any extreme passion, whether it be by way of exclamation or crying out, admiration or wondering, cursing, taking God and the world to witness, or anything like a declaration of an impotent affection.

“Then I pause… And ask God why

  Did he put me on this Earth just so I could die

  I sit back and build on all the things I did wrong

  Why I’m still breathin’ and all my friends gone

  I try not to dwell on this subject for a while

  Cause I might get stuck in this corrupt lifestyle

  But my heart pumps foul blood through my arteries

  And I can’t turn back it’s a part of me

  Too late for crying I’m a grown man strugglin’

  To reach the next level of life without fumblin’

  Down to foldin’ I got no shoulder to lean on but my own

  All alone in this danger zone”

  Mobb Deep (Prodigy) – Up North Trip

Brachiologa, or the Cutted Comma:

We use sometimes to proceed all by single word, without any close or coupling, saving that a little pause or comma is given to every word. This figure for pleasure may be called in our vulgar the cutter comma, for that there cannot be a shorter division then at every words end. The Greeks in their language call it short language, as thus:

“Stop being rapper racists, region-haters

  Spectators, dictators, behind door dick-takers”

  Lil Wayne – Shooter

If this loose language be used, not in single words, but in long clauses, it is called Asindenton, and in both cases we utter in that fashion, when either we be earnest, or would seem to make haste.

Parison or the figure of Even:

You have another figure which we may call the figure of even, because it goes by clauses of equal quantity, and not very long, but yet not so short as the cutted comma: and they give good grace to a song.

“Scientific, my hand kissed it,

  Robotic let’s think optimistic,

  You probably missed it,

  Watch me Dolly Dick it”

  Ghostface Killah – Nutmeg

Sinonimia, or the Figure of Store:

When so ever we multiply our speech by many words or clauses of one sense, the Greeks called it Sinonimia, as who would say like or consenting names: the Latins having no fit term to give it, called it by a name of event, for (said they) many words of one nature and sense, one of them do expound another. And therefore they called this figure the Interpreter, I for my part had rather call it the figure of Store, because plenty of one manner of thing in our language we call the Interpreter.

“Well I shall take 1000 razor blades and press them in the flesh

  Take my pitchfork out the fire soak it in their chest

  Through the ribs, spines, charcoal the muscle tissue

  And send what’s left back to yo mammy

  Cause that bitch might miss you

  But first, I want to slowly pull off all your skin

  Get grease and boil it, hot pour it on you and and your dead friend

  I probably outta be not be so horribly slaughtering the body

  I am so naughty because I am moderately in to photography

  Following through the autopsy

  But man, f*ck it, pour some acid on them too”

  Three Six Mafia (Lord Infamous) – Live By Yo Rep (Bone Diss)

In the red – instruments of torture – and the blue – images of the body/bodies – we have words belonging to one effect in each, allowed to us by the figure of store.

Metanoia, or the Penitent:

Other times we speak and be sorry for it, as if we had not well spoken, so that we seem to call in our word again, and to put in another fitter for the purpose: for which respects the Greeks called this manner of speech the figure of repentance: then for that upon repentance commonly follows amendment, the Latins called it the figure of correction, in that the speaker appears to reform that which was said amiss.

“I hope we feel like this forever

  Forever, forever ever, forever ever?

  Forever never seems that long until you’re grown”

  OutKast (Andre 3k) – Ms. Jackson

Antenagoge, or the Recompenser:

We have another manner of speech much like the repentant, but does not as the same recant or unsay a word that has been said before, putting another fitting in its place, but having spoken any thing to deprave the matter or party, we deny it not, but as it were help it again by another more favourable speech and so seem to make amends, for which it is called by the original name in both languages, the Recompencer.

“You don’t wanna be my age and can’t read and write,

  Begging different women for a place to sleep at night,

  Smart boys turn to men and do whatever they wish”

  Nas – I Can

Epithonema, or the Surclose:

Our MC in their song, will often use an Epigram to close a verse or two, spoken in such sort, as it may seem a manner of allowance to all the premises, and that which a joyful approbation, which the Latins call Acclamatio, we therefore call the figure the surclose or consenting close.

“I’m trying to right my wrongs,

  But it’s funny them same wrongs helped me write this song.”

  Kanye West – Touch the Sky

Auxesis, or the Advancer:

It happens many times that to urge and enforce the matter we speak of, we go still mounting by degrees and increasing our speech with words or with sentences of more weight one then another, and is a figure of both great efficacy and ornament.

“Yeah, I’ll f*ckin,

  Yeah, I’ll f*ckin lay your n*ts on a f*ckin dresser,

  Just your n*ts layin on a f*ckin dresser,

  I’ll f*ckin pull your tongue out your f*ckin mouth

  And stab the sh*t with a rusty screwdriver, BLAOWW!!

  I’ll f*ckin hang you by your f*ckin d*ck

  Off a f*ckin twelve story building out this motherf*cker

  I’ll f*ckin

  I’ll f*ckin

  Sew your assh*le closed, and keep feedin you

  And feedin you, and feedin you, and feedin you”

  Wu-Tang Clan – Method Man

Meiosis, or the Disabler:

After the advancer follows the abaser working by words and sentences of extenuation or diminution. Whereupon we call it the disabler or figure of extenuation: and this extenuation is used to diverse purposes, sometimes for modesties sake, and to avoid the opinion of arrogance.

“Where was the influence you speak of?

  You preached in front of 100,000, but never reached her,

  I f*ckin tell you, you f*ckin failure - you ain’t no leader

  I never liked you, forever despise you – I don’t need you!”

  Kendrick Lamar – U

It may also be done for spite to bring our adversaries in contempt.

“You a fan, a phony, a fake, a p*ssy, a Stan”

  Nas - Ether

We also use this kind of extenuation when we take in hand to comfort or cheer any perilous enterprise, making a great matter seem small, and of little difficulty. We use it again to excuse a fault, and to make an offence seem less than it is, by giving a term more favourable and of less vehemence than the truth requires, as to say of a great robbery, that it was but a small matter.

Merismus, or the Distributer:

You have a figure for orators or eloquent persuaders, when we may conveniently utter a matter in one entire speech or proportion and will rather do it piecemeal and by distribution of every part for amplifications sake.

“Just waking up in the morning gotta thank God

  I don’t know but today seems kinda odd

  No barking from the dogs, no smog

  And momma cooked a breakfast with no hog

  I got my grub on, but didn’t pig out

  Finally got a call from a girl I want to dig out

  Hooked it up on later as I hit the do’

  Thinking will I live another twenty fo’

  I gotta go cause I got me a drop top

  And if I hit the switch, I can make the ass drop

  Had to stop at a red light

  Looking in my mirror not a hacker in sight

  And everything is alright

  I got a beep from Kim and she can f*ck all night

  Called up the homies and I’m asking y’all

  Which park are y’all playing basketball?

  Get me on the court and I’m trouble

  Last week f*cked around a caught a triple-double

  Freaking brothers every way like M.J.

  I can’t believe, today was a good day.”

  Ice Cube – It was a Good Day

On Ice Cube’s classic hit song ‘It was a Good Day’, each verse ends with the line, ‘it was a good day’, and is preceded by a verse detailing why. This figure of Merismus serves for amplification, and also for ornament, and to enforce persuasion mightily. For although the message of the song would have been the same with just the ending line, it is the preceding verses that truly define it.

Epimone, or the Love-Burden:

The Greek poets who made musical ditties to be sung to the lute or harp, did used to link their stanzas together with one verse running throughout the whole song by equal distance. They called such linking verse Epimone, and we may term it the Love-burden, following the original, or if it please you, the long repeat: in one respect because that one verse alone bares the whole burden of the song according to the original: in another respect, for that it comes by large distance to be often repeated.

In hip-hop we can consider the love-burden to have been replaced by the hook, a repeated chorus that ties the themes of the song together. Consider this from Mos Def:

“I start to think, and then I sink

  Into the paper, like I was ink

  When I'm writing, I'm trapped in between the lines

  I escape, when I finish the rhyme”

 Mos Def – Love

The hook ties together the central theme of the song, Mos’ love for MCing/hip-hop, through the physical connection he has to the act of writing. Each verse explores this theme in a slightly different way, and the return to the hook allows the listener to reflect on how said hook and the verses interact.

Paradoxon, or the Wonderer:

Any times our MC is carried by some occasion to report of a thing that is marvellous, and then they seem not to speak it simply, but with some sign of admiration.

“I wonder if I’ll ever discover a passion like you and recover”

  Kendrick Lamar – Sing About Me, I’m Dying of Thirst

Aporia, or the Doubtful:

Not much unlike the wonderer have you another figure called the doubtful, because oftentimes we will seem to cast perils, and make doubt or things when by a plain manner of speech we might affirm or deny it.

“When a dude's getting bullied and shoots up his school

  And they blame it on Marilyn and the heroin

  Where were the parents at?”

  Eminem – The Way I Am

Epitropsis, or the figure of Reference:

This manner of speech is used when we will not seem, either for manner sake or to avoid tediousness, to trouble the judge or hearer with all that we could say, but having said enough already, we refer the rest to their consideration.

“The South got something to say, and that’s all I got to say.”

  Andre 3k – 1995 Source Awards

Parisia, or the Licentious:

The fine and subtle persuader when their intent is to sting their adversary, or else to declare their mind in broad and liberal speeches, which might breed offence or scandal, they will seem to bespeak pardon beforehand, whereby their licentiousness may be the better born with all.

 “I'm usually homeboys with the same n*ggas I'm rhymin' with

   But this is hip-hop, and them n*ggas should know what time it is

   And that goes for Jermaine Cole, Big K.R.I.T., Wale

   Pusha T, Meek Millz, A$AP Rocky, Drake

   Big Sean, Jay Electron', Tyler, Mac Miller,

   I got love for you all, but I’m tryna murder you n*ggas”

   Big Sean ft Kendrick Lamar – Control

Anachinosis, or the Impartener:

Not much unlike to the figure of reference, there is another with some little diversity which we call the impartener, because many times in pleading and persuading we think it a very good policy to acquaint our judge or hearer or adversary with some part of our counsel and advice, and to ask their opinion, as who would say they could not otherwise think of the matter as we do.

 “If you had 24 hours to live just think
  Where would you go?
  What would you do?
  Who would you screw?
  And who would you wanna notify?
  Or would your ass deny that your ass about to die?”

  Mase ft Puff Daddy – 24 Hrs. To Live

Paramologia, or the figure of Admittance:

The good orator uses a manner of speech in their persuasion and is when all that should seem to make against them being spoken by the other side, they will first admit it, and in the end avoid all for their better advantage. When the matter is so plain that it cannot be denied or traversed, it is good that it be justified by confession and avoidance.

“Why are men so weak?

   I ain’t got the answer”

  Akala – A Message

Dichologia, or the figure of Excuse:

Sometimes our error is so manifest, or we be so hardly pressed with our adversaries, as we cannot deny the fault laid unto our charge: in which case it is good policy to excuse it by some allowable pretext.

“I'm sorry Grandmama for mistakes I have made

  When I aired family business, how you put me in my place

  Even my baby mama, I can't look you in the face

  Cuz I can't do enough, you a symbol of God's grace

  So I place you in the flower bed, porcelain shower heads

  Throughout the house and keep the youngin's mouthes fed

  And when I'm gone, I hope it is said
  I gave structure to the youth by the example I lead..huh”

  Clipse (Malice) – Momma, I’m So Sorry

Commoratio, or the figure of Abode:

It is said by manner of a proverbial speech that they who find themselves well should not wag, even so the persuader finding a substantial point in their matter to serve their purpose, should dwell upon that point longer then upon any other less assured, and use all endeavour to maintain that one, and as it were to make their chief abode thereupon, for which cause I name it the figure of abode.

We might consider a number of rap diss tracks to make use of the figure of abode, taking aim, or rather, perching upon a particular place, to frame an entire track around. Everyone has their personal favourites, and many have made the list already.

Metastasis, or the Flitting figure, or the Remove:

Now as art and good policy in persuasion bids us to abide and not to stir from the point of our most advantage, but the same to enforce and tarry upon with a possible argument, so does discretion will us sometimes to flit from one matter to another, as a thing meet to be forsaken, and another entered upon, I call it therefore the flitting figure, or figure of remove, like as the other before was called the figure of abode.

“Once joined a rap clique – Midgets into Crunk”

  MF DOOM – El Chupa Nibre

In the wider context of this song, this essentially throwaway line would lead to a painful beef with MF Grimm and the Monsta Island Czars. In perhaps even more impressive fashion, Biggie’s ‘Kick in the Door’ is an entire rap diss that does not name drop one single rival artist – truly a phenomenal example of the art of discretion.

Expeditio, or the Speedy Dispatcher:

Occasion offers many times that our maker as an orator, or persuader, or pleaser should go roundly to work, and as they are want to say not stand all day trifling to no purpose, but to rid it out of the way quickly. This is done by a manner of speech, both figurative and argumentative, when we do briefly set down all our best reasons serving the purpose and reject all of them saving one, which we accept to satisfy the cause.

“A wise man told me don't argue with fools
  Cause people from a distance can't tell who is who
  So stop with that childish sh*t, n*gga I'm grown
  Please leave it alone, don't throw rocks at the throne
  Do not bark up that tree, that tree will fall on you
  I don't know why your advisors ain't forewarn you
  Please, not Jay, he's not for play
  I don't slack a minute, all that thug rapping and gimmicks
  I will end it, all that yapping be finished
  You are not deep, you made your bed now sleep
  Don't make me expose to them folks that don't know you
  N*gga I know you well, all the stolen jewels
  Twinkle toes you breaking my heart
  You can't f*ck with me, go play somewhere, I'm busy
  And all you other cats throwing shots at Jigga
  You only get half a bar, f*ck y'all n*ggas”

  Jay-Z - Takeover

Gnome, or the Director/Sententia, or the Sage Sayer:

In weighty causes and for great purposes, wise persuaders use grave and weighty speeches, especially in matters of advice or counsel, for which purpose there is a manner of speech to allege texts or authorities of witty sentence, such as moral doctrine and teach wisdom and good behaviour, by the Greek original we call it the Director, by the Latin it is called sententia; we may call it the sage sayer, thus.

“Some say the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice
  I say the darker the flesh then the deeper the roots
  I give a holla to my sisters on welfare
  2Pac cares, if don't nobody else care
  And, I know they like to beat you down a lot
  When you come around the block, brothers clown a lot
  But please don't cry, dry your eyes, never let up
  Forgive but don't forget, girl, keep your head up
  And when he tells you you ain't nothin', don't believe him
  And if he can't learn to love you, you should leave him
  Cause sister, you don't need him
  And I ain't tryin' to gas ya up, I just call 'em how I see 'em
  You know what makes me unhappy
  When brothers make babies, and leave a young mother to be a pappy
  And since we all came from a woman
  Got our name from a woman and our game from a woman
  I wonder why we take from our women
  Why we rape our women, do we hate our women?
  I think it's time to kill for our women
  Time to heal our women, be real to our women
  And if we don't we'll have a race of babies
  That will hate the ladies that make the babies
  And since a man can't make one
  He has no right to tell a woman when and where to create one
  So will the real men get up
  I know you're fed up ladies, but keep your head up”

  2Pac – Keep Ya Head Up

Sinathrismus, or the Heaping Figure:

Art and good policy moves us many times to be earnest in our speech, and then we lay on such load and so go to it by heaps as if we would win the game by multitude of words and speeches, not all of one but of diverse matters and sense, for which cause the Latins called it congeries and we the heaping figure.

“It's a common market and it's so much competition
  But to me, competition is none
  To my comp I'm a ton I get amped like Watts in a riot
  My compact disc is a commodity, so buy it
  Instead of competing with Pete
  Com compromised, Com made a promise
  Not to commercialize, but compound the soul
  With other elements, compelling sense into Communism”

  Common – Communism

Apostrophe, or the Turn Tale:

Many times when we have run a long race in our tale spoken to the hearers, we do suddenly fly out and either speak or exclaim at some other person or thing, and therefore the Greeks call such figure (as we do) the turn away or turn tale, and breed by such exchange a certain reaction to the hearers minds.

“Then he made his move to an abandoned building
  Ran up the stairs up to the top floor
  Opened up the door there, guess who he saw?
  Dave the dope fiend shootin' dope
  Who don't know the meaning of water nor soap
  He said "I need bullets, hurry up, run!"
  The dope fiend brought back a spanking shotgun

  He went outside but there was cops all over
  Then he dipped into a car, a stolen Nova
  Raced up the block doing 83
  Crashed into a tree near university
  Escaped alive though the car was battered
  Rat-a-tat-tatted and all the cops scattered”

  Slick Rick – Children’s Story

Hypotiposis, or the Counterfeit Representation:

The matter and occasion leads us many times to describe and set forth things, in such sort as it should appear they were truly before our eyes though they were not present, which to do it requires cunning: for nothing can be kindly counterfeit or represented in their absence, but by great discretion in the doer. And if the things we covet to describe be not natural or not veritable, then yet the same task more cunning to do it, because to fain a thing that never was nor is like to be, proceeds of a greater wit and sharper intention than to describe things that be true.

“Claiming New York was ancient Babylon

  Where the sky stayed the color of grey, like heron”

  Raekwon – Knowledge God

Prosopographia, or the Counterfeit Countenance:

And these be things that a poet or maker is want to describe sometimes as true or natural, and sometimes to fain as artificial and not true. The visage, speech and countenance of any person absent or dead: and this kind of representation is called the Counterfeit Countenance.

“Yo, in she came with the same type game
  The type of girl givin out the fake cell phone and name
  Big fame, she like cats with big thangs
  Jewels chip, money clip, phone flip, the six range
  I seen her on the ave, spotted her more than once
  Ass so fat that you could see it from the front
  She spot me like paparazzi; shot me a glance
  in that catwoman stance with the fat booty pants, Hot damn!
  What's your name love, where you came from?
  Neck and wrist laced up, very little make-up
  The swims at the Reebok gym tone your frame up
  Is sugar and spice the only thing that you made of?”

  Mos Def – Ms. Fat Booty

Prosopopeia, or the Counterfeit in Personation:

But if you will fain any person with such features, qualities and conditions, or if you will attribute any human quality, as reason or speech to dumb creatures or other insensible things, and do study (as one may say) to give them a humane person, it is not prosopographia, but prosopopeia, because it is by way of fiction.

“I used to be in love with this b*tch named E&J
  Don't f*ck with her no more now I f*ck with Tanqueray
  Tanqueray introduced me to her first cousin Gold
  Last name was English and the first name Olde
  But Gold couldn't take the d*ck it made me lazy
  We split apart and now I met this new trick Dainy
  Now me and Dainy, we been together ever since”

  Mobb Deep – Drink Away the Pain (Situations)

Cronographia, or the Counterfeit Time:

So if we describe the time or season of the year, as winter, summer, harvest, day, midnight, noon, evening, or such like: we call such description the counterfeit time. Cronographia examples are everywhere to be found.

“And think of the summers of the past

  Adjust the bass and let the Alpine blast

  Pop in my CD let me run a rhyme

  Put your car on cruise and lay back because it’s summertime”

  DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Price – Summertime

Topographia, or the Counterfeit Place:

And if this description be of any true place, city, Castle, hill, valley or sea, and such like: we call it the Counterfeit place topographia, or if you fain places untrue, as heaven, hell, paradise, the house of fame, the palace of the sun, the den of sheep, and such like.

“Dear momma don't cry, your baby boy's doin' good
  Tell the homies I'm in heaven and they ain't got hoods
  Seen a show with Marvin Gaye last night, it had me shook drippin' peppermint Schnapps,   with Jackie Wilson, and Sam Cooke
  Then some lady named Billie Holiday sang sittin' there kickin' it with Malcolm, 'til the day came
  Little LaTasha sho' grown tell the lady in the liquor that she's forgiven, so come home
  Maybe in time you'll understand only God can save us
  When Miles Davis cuttin' lose with the band
  Just think of all the people that you knew in the past
  That passed on, they in heaven, found peace at last
  Picture a place that they exist, together
  There has to be a place better than this, in heaven
  So right before I sleep, dear God, what I'm askin'
  Remember this face, save me a place, in thug's mansion”

  Nas ft 2Pac – Thugz Mansion

Pragmatographia, or the Counterfeit action:

But if this description be made to represent the handling of any business with the circumstances belonging thereunto as the manner of a battle, a feast, a marriage, a burial or any other matter that hath in feat and activity: we call it then the Counterfeit action.

“(Prince Markie D): $3.99 for all you can eat?
  Well, I'm a stuff my face to a funki beat!
  (Kool Rock Ski): We're gonna walk inside, and guess what's up:
  Put some food in my plate, and some Coke in my cup
  (Prince Markie D): Give me some chicken, franks, and fries
  And you can pass me a lettuce. I'm a pass it by
  (Kool Rock Ski): So keep shoveling, (Ha!) onto my plate
  Give me some sweets and lots of cake
  (Prince Markie D): Give me some hot Macaroni and Cheese!
  (Human Beat Box): Give me, some more food PLEASE!!!!
  (Kool Rock Ski): Give me some buloni, salami, and ham
  Toast with butter and strawberry jam
  (Prince Markie D): I love it whether the food is cold or hot
  Put a burger on the plate, and it'll hit the spot
  (Kool Rock Ski): We'll eat everything. An incredible feat
  $3.99 for all you can eat!”

  The Fat Boys – All You Can Eat

Omiosis, or Resemblance:

As well to a good maker and MC as to an excellent persuader in prose, the figure of Similitude is very necessary by which we not only beautify our tale, but also very much enforce and enlarge it. I say enforce because no one thing more prevails with all ordinary judgements than persuasion by similitude. Now because there are sundry sorts of them, which also do work after diverse fashions in the hearers of conceits, I will set them forth by a triple division, exempting the general Similitude as their common ancestor, and I will call that by the name of Resemblance without any addition, from which I derive three other sorts: and give every one their particular name, as Resemblance by portrait or imagery, which the Greeks call Icon, Resemblance moral or mystical, which they call Parabola, and Resemblance by example, which they call Paradigma. First we will speak of the general resemblance, or bare similitude, which may be thus spoken.

“Me without a mic is like a beat without a snare...
  I'm sweet like licorice, dangerous like syphilis.”

  The Fugees (Lauryn Hill) – How Many Mics?

Or,

"My rhymes are like shot clocks, interstate cops and blood clots,
  My point is your flow gets stopped."

  Black Star (Talib Kweli) – Hater Players

Or,

"Throwing out the wicked like God did the devil,
  Funky like your grandpa's drawers, don't test me,
  We’re in like that, you're dead like Presley."

  A Tribe Called Quest (Q-Tip) – Steve Biko

Icon, or Resemblance by imagery:

But when we liken a human person to another in countenance, stature, speech or other quality, it is not called bare resemblance, but resemblance by imagery or portrait, alluding to the painters term, who yields to the eye a visible representation of the thing they describe and paints in their table.

“Street life, got a n*gga hard nose
  Feeling like 2Pac, Lord knows”

  Big Pokey – Raise Em Up

And this manner of Resemblance is not only performed by likening lively creatures one to another, but also of any other natural thing bearing a proportion of similitude, as to liken yellow to gold, white to silver, red to the rose, soft to silk, hard to the stone and such like.

“ I flow like the blood on a murder scene”

  GZA – Liquid Swords

Parabola, or Resemblance Mystical:

But when so ever by your similitude you will seem to teach any morality or good lesson by speeches mystical and dark, or far set, under a sense metaphorical applying one natural thing to another, or one case to another, inferring by them a like consequence in other cases the Greeks call it Parabola, which term is also by custom accepted of us: nevertheless we may call it in English the Resemblance mystical. They may be false as well as true: as those fables of Aesop, and other apologies invent3 for doctrine sake by wise and grave persons.

“And this is the way I have to end this story
  He was only seventeen, in a madman's dream
  The cops shot the kid, I still hear him scream
  This ain't funny so don't ya dare laugh
  Just another case 'bout the wrong path,
  Straight 'n narrow or yo' soul gets cast”

  Slick Rick – Children’s Story

Paradigma, or a resemblance by example:

Finally, if in matter of counsel or persuasion we will seem to liken one case to another, such as pass ordinarily in one’s affairs, and do compare the past with the present, gathering probability of like success to come in the things we have presently in hand: or if you will draw the judgements precedent and authorised by antiquity as veritable, and peradventure fained and imagined for some purpose, into Similitude or dissimilitude with our present actions and affairs, it is called Resemblance by example.

“Ayo

  I'm like Malcolm out the window with the joint

  Hoodied up blood in my eye , I let two fly

  Like f**k it (2 gunshots)”

---

[1] All definitions and quotes are taken from the ‘Third Book of Ornament’, Chapter XIX, pg. 141-180, The Arte of English Poesie, George Puttenham (1859)

[2] https://youtu.be/VaSfaO2Ef5E

[3] https://mediadiversified.org/2017/10/09/byron-was-a-poet-jay-z-cant-be-academias-marginalisation-of-black-art/